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Even 40 years after his death, the Communist Party of China still feels the need for Mao Zedong to maintain its legitimacy. DW talks to sinologist Felix Wemheuer about the leader's legacy and current significance.
Born to a wealthy farmer in the Hunan province in 1893, Mao aimed to transform China into a communist state and succeeded in achieving his goal 1949, when he declared the People's Republic in Beijing's Tiananmen Square.
However, his reign of China was anything but smooth, with the country experiencing convulsions as a consequence of the leader's ill-conceived initiatives, which have led to the deaths of millions of people.
- The Communist Party turned increasingly totalitarian under Xi, who has crushed civil society, eliminated his own term limits, silenced dissent, thrown Muslim minorities in concentration camps,.
- The administration also will crack down on China for its labor practices beyond Xinjiang forced labor camps. But don't expect big new moves on Taiwan or more closures of Chinese.
Voice of the Martyrs USA spokesman Todd Nettleton says China is waging war on every religion – including Christianity. See our full China coverage here. “Protestant churches are also being told to take down the pictures of Jesus, put up a picture of Chairman Mao or put up a picture of President Xi Jinping,” Nettleton says. The post-Mao regime, which is a product of Mao’s legacy, has never relinquished absolute, unrestrained power over its citizens. This was made very evident by the infamous Tiananmen Square massacre.
Still, 40 years after his death, Mao Zedong's presence remains impossible to escape in China, yet difficult to discuss. His corpse still lies in state in the center of Beijing, watched over by a giant portrait hanging on the Forbidden City in Tiananmen Square. While Mao is still officially venerated by the ruling CPC as the founder of modern China, some fear the party, in a bid to modernize its image, wants to play down his legacy.
Meanwhile, Mao has become a potent symbol for leftists within and without the ruling Communist Party who feel three decades of market-based reform have gone too far, creating social inequalities like poverty and graft.
In lauding Mao, they sometimes seek to put pressure on the current leadership and its market-oriented policies. In a DW interview, China expert Felix Wemheuer explains about Mao's record on both the domestic and foreign policy fronts and how his personality cult continues to play a role in present-day China.
Battle For Shanghai
Wemheuer: The CPC believes 'it cannot justify its legitimacy without Mao'
DW: Could you tell us about Mao's journey from being the son of a wealthy farmer to the head of communist China?
Mao Zedong Sparrow
Felix Wemheuer: We have to go back to the period immediately after the end of World War I. A major theme of the so-called 'May 4th Movement' of 1919 was the question of how to make China a modern nation while fending off Western imperialism. In this context, many intellectuals turned to communism and the Soviet Union.
The Treaty of Versailles and the disappointment caused by the pact, which transferred the control of the Shandong region (currently Shandong Province) to Japan, also contributed to the development.
Mao was also part of this movement and he founded the Communist Party of China (CPC) in 1921. Initially, he was only one of several leaders. But his successful strategy, of creating so-called liberated areas in the hinterland with guerilla bases and establishing a parallel state later propelled him to become the party's sole leader and the figurehead of the Chinese Communist revolution.
It also helped him establish his personality cult and image as a person who developed the right strategy to implement the Chinese revolution, which ultimately brought the CPC to power.
The Cultural Revolution began in 1966 when Mao declared a class war
The takeover of power by the CPC under Mao's leadership was followed by two catastrophes resulting in the loss of millions of lives. How do you view these disasters and Mao's responsibility for causing them?
The two catastrophes are the Great Leap Forward (1958-61) and the Cultural Revolution (1966-76). The Great Leap Forward was part of an ill-conceived industrialization program, with the help of which China wanted to quickly modernize and catch up with the West. Mao pursued this goal along with the establishment of a communist society. But it failed miserably and ended in a catastrophe. His aim certainly was not to have people starve to death, although after the famine broke out he did little to save as many as possible.
During the Cultural Revolution days, however, Mao applied some of the lessons learned from the failure of the Great Leap Forward, thus ensuring that the nation's economy did not entirely collapse. There was a small economic slump at the start of 1967, but agriculture and industry remained relatively stable during that time. Despite party infighting and political chaos, the economy did not once again collapse.
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The paradox in Mao's attitude towards violence is that at the start of each of his big campaigns, he always incited violence against landowners and party cadres. But at the same time, when things started to get out of hand, he was the only one who could stop them. That led many victims to a paradoxical situation where they could only be saved by Mao.
Even Xi Zhongxun, the father of the current President Xi Jinping, was one of the victims of the Cultural Revolution. Almost all members of the current leadership come from families that suffered during the revolution. As a result, these people have many reasons to say Mao was bad. But they don't do that because the party is still of the view that it cannot justify its legitimacy without Mao.
How do you see Mao's record on the foreign policy front?
Mao scored his most lasting successes in foreign policy. Although the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) government was recognized as one of the victors of World War II and accorded a permanent seat in the UN Security Council, the KMT remained very weak and was unable to control either Xinjiang or Tibet. But after the Communist takeover in 1949, China was able to re-establish its control over a territory that was in accordance with the borders of the Qing Dynasty.
The West initially had to give up all its claims and then China was able to assert its independence from Soviet Union's policies. Following the escalation of the Sino-Soviet conflict, Mao made a strategic pivot, normalizing relations with the US in 1972 under President Richard Nixon. This put an end to the bipolarity of the Cold War in Asia, where China and the US joined hands in their opposition against the Soviet Union.
Cultural Revolution Mao Zedong
In the early 1960s, it was considered outrageous in the world communist movement to publicly challenge the Soviet leadership. And the Soviet Union, for its part, tried to bring together all eastern European nations to oppose China. Moscow succeeded in its mission, with the exception of Albania, but China was able to gain new allies, particularly in Africa.
What role does Mao play in Xi Jinping's China?
With his anti-corruption campaign, President Xi - similar to Mao - has positioned himself as someone who is above the party. Xi presents himself as a leader who - in the interests of the Chinese people - is willing to take on the party ruthlessly to cleanse it of corruption. Xi's pledges like vowing to crack down on both 'tigers' and 'flies' were also a page taken from Mao's book.
In general, we are currently seeing a trend towards strong men like Recip Tayyip Erdogan, Vladimir Putin and Donald Trump. And it is somehow fitting for Xi to be regarded as China's strongman. In my view, he wants to cultivate a Mao-like charisma without actually propagating Maoist content. So the idea of class struggle does not matter at all.
Nevertheless, maintaining stability and continuity is important for the party. And Mao is viewed in a much more positive light now than ten years ago. But discourse over his legacy has been more or less limited, portraying Mao as the leader who built a strong and rich China that was able to assert its importance on the international arena.
Felix Wemheuer is Professor of China-Studies at the University of Cologne and author of a biography on Mao Zedong, published in 2009.
The Chinese state newspaper Global Times is warning authors of danmei, a majority female-written genre of online gay fiction, which communist government officials have banned; they are offering digital currency in exchange for reporting the “vulgar” content.
Global Times approaches the topic from an economic standpoint, noting that outlets that have had success publishing danmei fear that they will no longer be able to profit from the content, as foreign distributors interested in buying the fiction now fear running afoul of the Chinese government.
“I was in the process of selling the adaptation rights of some of our novels and even considered bringing in investors to expand the platform. The investors initially showed great interest but after the release of the two regulations last week, they got cold feet,” an anonymous owner of a danmei website told the government-controlled outlet.
The crackdown is part of a larger censorship system debuting last week. According to the Times, “The State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (SAPPRFT) made public a guideline that says all online literary platforms will be assessed annually on an 100-point scale, of which 30 points will be dedicated to ‘value guidance and style of thought.'”
All works of fiction must now “reflect core socialist values and abide by moral norms.”
“The regulation demands that up to 20 points be attributed to whether the platform has provided enough literary works that reflect core socialist values,” the report added, noting that the grossest violations of “value guidance” would be any content that questions or challenges China’s communist system (“serious political error”).
SAPPRFT also unveiled a new initiative in which all movie theaters in China must screen communist propaganda before the beginning of films. Television outlets must now also broadcast at least seventeen “propagandistic drama series approved by the government” each.
While typically reflecting the Chinese government’s party line and regurgitating belligerent state propaganda against the United States, the Global Times has printed comments from individuals referring to homosexuality as “normal and natural, if only present among “a small group of people.” That remark, from a sexologist, came in response to new online censorship from the China Netcasting Services Association (CNSA), which banned “pornography and vulgar tastes including abnormal sexual relations such as incest, homosexuality, and sexual abuse, as well as unhealthy views on marriage such as sexual freedom and wife swapping.”
Communist dictatorships have traditionally abused the rights of their LGBT citizens, placing them in labor camps or executing them for their “counter-revolutionary” behavior. China is no different; while there are no known statistics on the number of LGBT individuals killed or imprisoned under Mao Zedong, there is ample evidence of such abuse. China legalized homosexuality in 1997, but instances of “conversion therapy” abuses persisted.
Danmei, the gay fiction genre in question in the Times article, consists of more than consensual adult gay activity, however. Many of the stories, the New York Timesreported in a 2014 story on the genre, involve abuse of men and father-son incest; though a high percentage of danmei authors are women, few of the characters created are. Some fantasies in question, the New York Times cites a scholar explaining, are meant to subconsciously “subvert the state.” The same year this profile surfaced, the Chinese government arrested over twenty women for participating in writing gay fiction online.
The crackdown on danmei is part of a broader initiative by President Xi Jinping to suppress any organic expressions of Chinese culture that the government cannot control and replace it with “socialist family values.” In December 2016, Xi delivered a speech calling for a “new trend toward socialist family values,” followed by a crackdown on dating television shows, online video that did not conform to “correct political and aesthetic standards,” and any media promoting “Western lifestyles.”